Diabetes Mellitus in the 21st century: Challenges, Breakthroughs, and Unmet Needs
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.64261/p91hzy25Keywords:
Gestational diabetes, Diabetes mellitus, SGLT2 inhibitors, GLP-1 receptor agonists, Pharmacological advancements, Continuous glucose monitoring, Regenerative medicine.Abstract
With a startling global increase in prevalence, diabetes mellitus has become one of the most significant health issues of the twenty-first century. According to current estimates, more than 530 million adults have diabetes; if current trends continue, that number is expected to rise to over 780 million by 2045. Type 1 diabetes and gestational diabetes also make a substantial contribution to the worldwide burden of diabetes, although type 2 diabetes is still the most common type and is mostly caused by lifestyle factors like obesity, poor diet, and sedentary behavior. Diabetes is a leading cause of disability and premature mortality, contributing to blindness, amputations, cardiovascular disease, and kidney failure in addition to hyperglycemia. New pharmacological treatments (GLP-1 receptor agonists, dual incretin therapies, and SGLT2 inhibitors), technological advancements (continuous glucose monitoring, hybrid closed-loop systems), and developing regenerative medicine techniques (stem cell therapy, gene editing) have all changed the face of diabetes care. However, particularly in low- and middle-income nations, there are still significant gaps in patient-centered care, early detection, affordability, and access to insulin and contemporary treatments. In order to achieve better management and, eventually, a cure, future directions require a comprehensive strategy that incorporates translational research, global equity initiatives, preventive public health measures, and precision medicine.
References
References:
1. Atique, R., Saeed, H. A., Haidar, A., Talib, A., Naveed, A., Sharif, J., ... & Anwar10, B. Diabetes Mellitus Disclosure: A Comprehensive Review on a Global Issue. Global Journal of Multidisciplinary Sciences and Arts, 1(1), 49-84. DOI: https://doi.org/10.70445/gjmdsa.1.1.2024.49-84
2. Sharma, P., Sharma, R. K., & Gaur, K. (2024). Understanding the impact of diabetes on bone health: A clinical review. Metabolism Open, 24, 100330. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.metop.2024.100330
3. Sharif, S., Sharif, H., Rehman, J., & Fatima, Z. (2023). Is a sedentary lifestyle a leading causal factor of obesity and distress in type 2 diabetes? A cross-sectional study in low-socioeconomic areas of Karachi, Pakistan. BMJ Public Health, 1(1). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjph-2023-000149
4. Smokovski, I. (2021). Managing diabetes in low income countries. springer. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-51469-3
5. Siiba, A., Kangmennaang, J., Baatiema, L., & Luginaah, I. (2024). The relationship between climate change, globalization and non-communicable diseases in Africa: A systematic review. PLoS One, 19(2), e0297393. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297393
6. James, W. P. T., & Gill, T. (2022). Obesity–introduction: history and the scale of the problem worldwide. Clinical Obesity in Adults and Children, 1-16. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119695257.ch1
7. David, A., Leibbrandt, M., Ranchhod, V., & Yasser, R. (2025). Inequalities in Sub-Saharan Africa: Multidimensional Perspectives and Future Challenges. World Bank Publications.
8. Alhashemi, M., Mayo, W., Alshaghel, M. M., Alsaman, M. Z. B., & Kassem, L. H. (2022). Prevalence of obesity and its association with fast-food consumption and physical activity: A cross-sectional study and review of medical students' obesity rate. Annals of medicine and surgery, 79, 104007. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amsu.2022.104007
9. Goswami, N. (2024). A dual burden dilemma: Navigating the global impact of communicable and non-communicable diseases and the way forward. International Journal of Medical Research, 12(3), 65-77. DOI: https://doi.org/10.55489/ijmr.11202412
10. Saini, R., & Bajpai, M. (2024). Malnutrition: A longstanding challenge in India. Current Nutrition & Food Science, 20(9), 1069-1085. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2174/0115734013280207231120061242
11. Pei, X., & Li, Z. (2025). Narrative review of comprehensive management strategies for diabetic retinopathy: interdisciplinary approaches and future perspectives. BMJ Public Health, 3(1). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjph-2024-001353
12. Yameny, A. A. (2025). Diabetes Mellitus: A Comprehensive Review of Types, Pathophysiology, Complications, and Standards of Care in Diabetes 2025. Journal of Medical and Life Science, 7(1), 134-141. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21608/jmals.2025.424001
13. Afrifa-Yamoah, E., Adua, E., Peprah-Yamoah, E., Anto, E. O., Opoku-Yamoah, V., Acheampong, E., ... & Hashmi, R. (2025). Pathways to chronic disease detection and prediction: Mapping the potential of machine learning to the pathophysiological processes while navigating ethical challenges. Chronic Diseases and Translational Medicine, 11(01), 1-21. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/cdt3.137
14. Tegegne, B. A., Adugna, A., Yenet, A., Yihunie Belay, W., Yibeltal, Y., Dagne, A., ... & Zeleke, T. K. (2024). A critical review on diabetes mellitus type 1 and type 2 management approaches: from lifestyle modification to current and novel targets and therapeutic agents. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 15, 1440456. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2024.1440456
15. Mauvais, F. X., & van Endert, P. M. (2025). Type 1 diabetes: A guide to autoimmune mechanisms for clinicians. Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism, 27, 40-56. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/dom.16460
16. Metroid, A. S., Chmagh, A. A., Hussein, K. R., & Altemimi, M. T. (2024). The role of GaD65, ZNTS, IA-2, and IAA as predictive biomarkers for type 1 diabetes mellitus in children. Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal, 23(2), 290-298. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4103/epj.epj_220_23
17. Park, Y., Ko, K. S., & Rhee, B. D. (2025). New Perspectives in Studying Type 1 Diabetes Susceptibility Biomarkers. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 26(7), 3249. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms26073249
18. Osman, A. (2025). Characterization of the immunogenetic markers and the impact of their polymorphisms on susceptibility to immune-related diseases in the Saudi population (Doctoral dissertation, The University of Sunderland).
19. Kumar, M., Yip, L., Wang, F., Marty, S. E. M., & Fathman, C. G. (2025). Autoimmune disease: genetic susceptibility, environmental triggers, and immune dysregulation. Where can we develop therapies?. Frontiers in Immunology, 16, 1626082. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2025.1626082
20. Mittal, R., Camick, N., Lemos, J. R., & Hirani, K. (2024). Gene-environment interaction in the pathophysiology of type 1 diabetes. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 15, 1335435. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2024.1335435
21. Zhao, Y., & Yue, R. (2024). Aging adipose tissue, insulin resistance, and type 2 diabetes. Biogerontology, 25(1), 53-69. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10522-023-10067-6
22. Bo, T., Gao, L., Yao, Z., Shao, S., Wang, X., Proud, C. G., & Zhao, J. (2024). Hepatic selective insulin resistance at the intersection of insulin signaling and metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease. Cell Metabolism, 36(5), 947-968. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2024.04.006
23. Skelin Klemen, M., Kopecky, J., Dolenšek, J., & Stožer, A. (2024). Human beta cell functional adaptation and dysfunction in insulin resistance and its reversibility. Nephron, 148(2), 78-84. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1159/000534667
24. O'Sullivan, S., Qi, L., & Zalloua, P. (2025). From omics to AI—mapping the pathogenic pathways in type 2 diabetes. FEBS letters. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/1873-3468.70115
25. Siddiqui, I., Baig, M. M., & Khan, N. A. (2024). Environmental and Lifestyle Determinants of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4738489/v1
26. Mohan, V. (2025). Lessons learned from epidemiology of type 2 diabetes in South Asians: Kelly West award lecture 2024. Diabetes care, 48(2), 153-163. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2337/dci24-0046
27. Mittal, R., Prasad, K., Lemos, J. R., Arevalo, G., & Hirani, K. (2025). Unveiling gestational diabetes: an overview of pathophysiology and management. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 26(5), 2320. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms26052320
28. Tagami, K., Iwama, N., Hamada, H., Tomita, H., Kudo, R., Kumagai, N., ... & Japan Environment and Children's Study Group. (2025). Advanced maternal age is a risk factor for both early and late gestational diabetes mellitus: The Japan Environment and Children's Study. Journal of Diabetes Investigation, 16(4), 735-743. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jdi.14400
29. Stephansson, O., & Sandström, A. (2024). Can short‐and long‐term maternal and infant risks linked to hypertension and diabetes during pregnancy be reduced by therapy?. Journal of internal medicine, 296(3), 216-233. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/joim.13823
30. Balasubramanyam, A. (2021). Defining and classifying new subgroups of diabetes. Annual review of medicine, 72(1), 63-74. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-med-050219-034524
31. Zhou, Z., Xu, M., Xiong, P., Yuan, J., Zheng, D., & Piao, S. (2024). Prognosis and outcome of latent autoimmune diabetes in adults: T1DM or T2DM?. Diabetology & Metabolic Syndrome, 16(1), 242. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13098-024-01479-6
32. Ruiz-Urbaez, R., Males-Maldonado, D., Villagómez-Estrada, M. V., Reyes-Silva, C., Salazar-Vega, J., Jaramillo-Koupermann, G., ... & Gea-Izquierdo, E. (2025). Misdiagnosis of Maturity-Onset Diabetes of the Young (MODY) as type 1, type 2 or gestational diabetes: insights from a Latin American tertiary center. Frontiers in Medicine, 12, 1613877. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2025.1613877
33. Sperling, M. A., & Garg, A. (2021). Monogenic forms of diabetes.
34. Xing, L., Peng, F., Liang, Q., Dai, X., Ren, J., Wu, H., ... & Zhao, S. (2021). Clinical characteristics and risk of diabetic complications in data-driven clusters among type 2 diabetes. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 12, 617628. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2021.617628
35. Aloke, C., Egwu, C. O., Aja, P. M., Obasi, N. A., Chukwu, J., Akumadu, B. O., ... & Achilonu, I. (2022). Current advances in the management of diabetes mellitus. Biomedicines, 10(10), 2436. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines10102436
36. Bello, M. E. Assessing Socioeconomic Determinants of Diabetes Management Outcomes in Urban and Rural Low-Income Communities Across Geographic Regions.
37. Agede, O. A. (2024). Pharmacotherapy of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) in Clinical Practice: a comprehensive review of the treatment options. Nigerian Stethoscope, 6(2), 8-18.
38. Mohan, V., Sudha, V., Shobana, S., Gayathri, R., & Krishnaswamy, K. (2023). Are Unhealthy Diets Contributing to the Rapid Rise of Type 2 Diabetes in India?. The Journal of nutrition, 153(4), 940–948. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tjnut.2023.02.028
39. Ike, P. C., Agboli, V. I., Emmanuel, N. A., Fubara, B. N., Isaac, A. O., & Ogo, O. T. (2025). Evaluating the Effectiveness of Proactive Diagnosis and Coordinated Care Strategies in Preventing Diabetic Retinopathy in Middle-Aged Men with Sedentary Lifestyles in Urban Settings. Journal of Health, Wellness and Safety Research.
40. Misra, S., Ke, C., Srinivasan, S., Goyal, A., Nyriyenda, M. J., Florez, J. C., ... & Luk, A. (2023). Current insights and emerging trends in early-onset type 2 diabetes. The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology, 11(10), 768-782. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(23)00225-5
41. Pappachan, J. M., Fernandez, C. J., & Ashraf, A. P. (2024). Rising tide: the global surge of type 2 diabetes in children and adolescents demands action now. World Journal of Diabetes, 15(5), 797. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4239/wjd.v15.i5.797
42. Vicks, W. S., Lo, J. C., Guo, L., Rana, J. S., Zhang, S., Ramalingam, N. D., & Gordon, N. P. (2022). Prevalence of prediabetes and diabetes vary by ethnicity among US Asian adults at healthy weight, overweight, and obesity ranges: an electronic health record study. BMC Public Health, 22(1), 1954. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-14362-8
43. Gustafson, P., Abdul Aziz, Y., Lambert, M., Bartholomew, K., Rankin, N., Fusheini, A., ... & Crengle, S. (2023). A scoping review of equity-focused implementation theories, models and frameworks in healthcare and their application in addressing ethnicity-related health inequities. Implementation Science, 18(1), 51. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13012-023-01304-0
44. Basu, S., Flood, D., Geldsetzer, P., Theilmann, M., Marcus, M. E., Ebert, C., ... & Davies, J. (2021). Estimated effect of increased diagnosis, treatment, and control of diabetes and its associated cardiovascular risk factors among low-income and middle-income countries: a microsimulation model. The Lancet Global Health, 9(11), e1539-e1552. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(21)00340-5
45. Kwok, C. S., Phillips, A., Mukherjee, S., Patel, M. G., & Hanif, W. (2024). Missed opportunities in type 2 diabetes mellitus: A narrative review. Current Diabetes Reviews, 20(9), 111-117. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2174/0115733998274651231117101511
46. Bassem, Y. Globalizing Continuous Glucose Monitoring Systems: A Paradigm Shift from Traditional Self-Monitoring Blood Glucose Devices.
47. Di Filippo, D. (2023). Continuous Glucose Monitoring for the Diagnosis of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (Doctoral dissertation, University of New South Wales (Australia)). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-023-05496-7
48. American Diabetes Association. (2021). 2. Classification and diagnosis of diabetes: standards of medical care in diabetes—2021. Diabetes care, 44(Supplement_1), S15-S33. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2337/dc21-S002
49. Damini, G. (2024). Epidemiological trends and challenges in global infectious disease control. Global Perspectives in Health, Medicine, and Nursing, 3(1), 34-44.
50. Amirqulova, G. M., & Xidirova, N. X. (2024). VASCULAR COMPLICATIONS OF DIABETES. European Journal of Modern Medicine and Practice, 4(11), 180-185.
51. Perveen, W., Ahsan, H., Shahzad, R., Fayyaz, S., Zaif, A., Paracha, M. A., ... & Alghadir, A. H. (2024). Prevalence of peripheral neuropathy, amputation, and quality of life in patients with diabetes mellitus. Scientific Reports, 14(1), 14430. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-65495-2
52. Rodríguez‐Mañas, L., Sandoval‐Santoyo, R. E., Castro‐Rodríguez, M., Subkhan, A., Majid, A., & Ali, A. (2025). Macrovascular Complications: Peripheral Arterial Disease. Care of Older People with Diabetes: A Manual for Healthcare Practice, 81-107. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781394205066.ch9
53. Akunne, O. Z., & Anulugwo, O. E. (2024). Emerging therapies targeting cardiovascular risk factors to prevent or delay the onset of heart failure. American Journal of Pharmacotherapy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 3. DOI: https://doi.org/10.25259/AJPPS_2024_013
54. Faienza, M. F., Farella, I., Khalil, M., & Portincasa, P. (2024). Converging Pathways between Metabolic Dysfunction–Associated Steatotic Liver Disease (MASLD) and Diabetes in Children. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 25(18), 9924. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25189924
55. Chew, N. W., Mehta, A., Goh, R., Koh, J., Chen, Y., Chong, B., ... & Sperling, L. S. (2025). The global cardiovascular–liver–metabolic syndemic: epidemiology, trends and challenges. Nature Reviews Cardiology, 1-20. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41569-025-01220-4
56. Nagel, K. E., Ramachandran, R., & Lipska, K. J. (2024). Lessons from insulin: policy prescriptions for affordable diabetes and obesity medications. Diabetes Care, 47(8), 1246-1256. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2337/dci23-0042
57. Rahman, T., Gasbarro, D., & Alam, K. (2022). Financial risk protection from out-of-pocket health spending in low-and middle-income countries: a scoping review of the literature. Health Research Policy and Systems, 20(1), 83. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12961-022-00886-3
58. McEwan, P., & Evans, M. (2025). The health economics of insulin therapy: How do we address the rising demands, costs, inequalities and barriers to achieving optimal outcomes. Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/DOM.16488/v2/response1
59. Mullan, L., Armstrong, K., & Job, J. (2023). Barriers and enablers to structured care delivery in Australian rural primary care. Australian Journal of Rural Health, 31(3), 361-384. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ajr.12963
60. Patel, P. M., Thomas, D., Liu, Z., Aldrich‐Renner, S., Clemons, M., & Patel, B. V. (2024). Systematic review of disparities in continuous glucose monitoring and insulin pump utilization in the United States: key themes and evidentiary gaps. Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism, 26(10), 4293-4301. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/dom.15774
61. Karlsson, O., Chang, A. Y., Norheim, O. F., Mao, W., Bolongaita, S., & Jamison, D. T. (2025). Priority Health Conditions and Global Life Expectancy Disparities. JAMA Network Open, 8(5), e2512198-e2512198. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2025.12198
62. Beran, D., Lazo-Porras, M., Mba, C. M., & Mbanya, J. C. (2021). A global perspective on the issue of access to insulin. Diabetologia, 64(5), 954-962. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-020-05375-2
63. Kumar, P., Lionis, C., Andoko, D., Rahman, Z., Anastasaki, M., & Awankem, B. (2025). Evaluation of Diagnostic Services in Rural and Remote Areas: Bottlenecks, Success Stories, and Solutions. Journal of Surgical Specialties and Rural Practice, 6(1), 32-37. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4103/jssrp.jssrp_8_25
64. Hellebo, A. (2024). The economic burden, patients' well-being, and social determinants related to diabetes in South Africa.
65. Kumar, A., Mazumder, A., Bansal, P., Tyagi, P. K., & Kaur, A. (2024). Integrating Precision Medicine in Diabetes Mellitus: Enhancing Wound Healing and Shaping Future Therapies. Recent Advances in Inflammation & Allergy Drug Discovery. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2174/0127722708335238240920035556
66. Sims, E. K., Carr, A. L., Oram, R. A., DiMeglio, L. A., & Evans-Molina, C. (2021). 100 years of insulin: celebrating the past, present and future of diabetes therapy. Nature medicine, 27(7), 1154-1164. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-021-01418-2
67. Alam, M. A., Sohel, A., Hasan, K. M., & Islam, M. A. (2024). Machine Learning And Artificial Intelligence in Diabetes Prediction And Management: A Comprehensive Review of Models. Journal of Next-Gen Engineering Systems. DOI: https://doi.org/10.70937/jnes.v1i01.41
68. Hassan, E., & Omenogor, C. E. (2025). AI powered predictive healthcare: Deep learning for early diagnosis, personalized treatment, and disease prevention.
69. Ortiz-Martínez, M., González-González, M., Martagón, A. J., Hlavinka, V., Willson, R. C., & Rito-Palomares, M. (2022). Recent developments in biomarkers for diagnosis and screening of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Current diabetes reports, 22(3), 95-115. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11892-022-01453-4
70. Venkatesan, G., vetha Kumari, K., & Vijayababu, P. (2025). Monogenic Diabetes: Genetic Insight and Precision Therapeutics in the Management of MODY. Exon, 2(1), 16-24. DOI: https://doi.org/10.69936/en02y0025
71. Zheng, Z., Zong, Y., Ma, Y., Tian, Y., Pang, Y., Zhang, C., & Gao, J. (2024). Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor: mechanisms and advances in therapy. Signal transduction and targeted therapy, 9(1), 234. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41392-024-01931-z
72. Fisman, E. Z., & Tenenbaum, A. (2021). The dual glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonist tirzepatide: a novel cardiometabolic therapeutic prospect. Cardiovascular diabetology, 20(1), 225. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12933-021-01412-5
73. Preda, A., Montecucco, F., Carbone, F., Camici, G. G., Lüscher, T. F., Kraler, S., & Liberale, L. (2024). SGLT2 inhibitors: from glucose-lowering to cardiovascular benefits. Cardiovascular research, 120(5), 443-460. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/cvr/cvae047
74. Grattoni, A., Korbutt, G., Tomei, A. A., García, A. J., Pepper, A. R., Stabler, C., ... & de Vos, P. (2025). Harnessing cellular therapeutics for type 1 diabetes mellitus: progress, challenges, and the road ahead. Nature Reviews Endocrinology, 21(1), 14-30. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41574-024-01029-0
75. Mignogna, C., Maddaloni, E., D’Onofrio, L., & Buzzetti, R. (2021). Investigational therapies targeting CD3 for prevention and treatment of type 1 diabetes. Expert Opinion on Investigational Drugs, 30(12), 1209-1219. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13543784.2022.2022119
76. Marques, L., Costa, B., Pereira, M., Silva, A., Santos, J., Saldanha, L., ... & Vale, N. (2024). Advancing precision medicine: a review of innovative in silico approaches for drug development, clinical pharmacology and personalized healthcare. Pharmaceutics, 16(3), 332. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics16030332
77. Navaei, O. (2025). Personalized Medicine: Tailoring Treatment Plans Based on Genetic Profile. Eurasian Journal of Chemical, Medicinal and Petroleum Research, 4(2), 129-151.
78. Zhou, Q., Lei, X., Fu, S., Liu, P., Long, C., Wang, Y., ... & Chen, Q. (2023). Efficacy and safety of tirzepatide, dual GLP-1/GIP receptor agonists, in the management of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Diabetology & Metabolic Syndrome, 15(1), 222. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13098-023-01198-4
79. Usman, M. S., Khan, M. S., & Butler, J. (2021). The interplay between diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and kidney disease. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2337/db20211-13
80. LeFevre, J. D., Cyriac, S. L., Tokmic, A., & Pitlick, J. M. (2022). Anti-CD3 monoclonal antibodies for the prevention and treatment of type 1 diabetes: A literature review. American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy, 79(23), 2099-2117. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ajhp/zxac244
81. Nameghi, S. M. (2024). Exploring the recent advancements and future prospects of personalized medicine in type 2 diabetes. Endocrine and Metabolic Science, 16, 100193. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.endmts.2024.100193
82. Vadia, N., Patel, P., & Sutariya, V. (2025). Advances and Opportunities in Digital Diabetic Healthcare Systems. In Decision Support System for Diabetes Healthcare: Advancements and Applications (pp. 15-52). River Publishers. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1201/9788770046886-2
83. Ghosh, N., & Verma, S. (2024). Technological advancements in glucose monitoring and artificial pancreas systems for shaping diabetes care. Current Medical Research and Opinion, 40(12), 2095-2107. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03007995.2024.2422005
84. Handwerk, P. (2025). The effect of physical exercises on glucose control in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus. literature review (Doctoral dissertation, Vilniaus universitetas.).
85. Garg, V., Kumar, H., Bansal, R., & Bhardwaj, A. (2025). Envisioning Digital Health Technology Innovations for 2025: Enhancing Digital Interventions in the Post-COVID-19 Era. In Innovations in Healthcare Technologies in India: An Initiative of ICMR-CIBioD (Centre for Innovation and Bio-Design) (pp. 1-17). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-0244-2_1
86. Alum, E. U., Obasi, D. C., Abba, J. N., Aniokete, U. C., Okoroh, P. N., & Akwari, A. A. (2025). Evolving Paradigms in Nutrition Therapy for Diabetes: From Carbohydrate Counting to Precision Diets. Obesity Medicine, 100622. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obmed.2025.100622
87. Arshad, M. T., Ali, M. K. M., Maqsood, S., Ikram, A., Ahmed, F., Aljameel, A. I., ... & Hossain, M. S. (2025). Personalized Nutrition in the Era of Digital Health: A New Frontier for Managing Diabetes and Obesity. Food Science & Nutrition, 13(10), e71006. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.71006
88. Saeed, D. K., Nashwan, A. J., & Saeed Jr, D. K. (2025). Harnessing Artificial Intelligence in Lifestyle Medicine: Opportunities, Challenges, and Future Directions. Cureus, 17(6). DOI: https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.85580
89. Laddu, D., Paluch, A. E., & LaMonte, M. J. (2021). The role of the built environment in promoting movement and physical activity across the lifespan: Implications for public health. Progress in cardiovascular diseases, 64, 33-40. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcad.2020.12.009
90. Migliorini, A., Nostro, M. C., & Sneddon, J. B. (2021). Human pluripotent stem cell-derived insulin-producing cells: A regenerative medicine perspective. Cell metabolism, 33(4), 721-731. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2021.03.021
91. Abdalla, M. M. I. (2024). Advancing diabetes management: Exploring pancreatic beta-cell restoration’s potential and challenges. World Journal of Gastroenterology, 30(40), 4339. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3748/wjg.v30.i40.4339
92. Opara, A., Jost, A., Dagogo-Jack, S., & Opara, E. C. (2021). Islet cell encapsulation–Application in-diabete treatment. Experimental Biology and Medicine, 246(24), 2570-2578. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/15353702211040503
93. Ho, B. X., Teo, A. K. K., & Ng, N. H. J. (2024). Innovations in bio-engineering and cell-based approaches to address immunological challenges in islet transplantation. Frontiers in Immunology, 15, 1375177. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2024.1375177
94. Gregg, E., Buckley, J., Ali, M. K., Davies, J., Flood, D., Mehta, R., ... & HPAAC Collaboration. (2023). Improving health outcomes of people with diabetes mellitus: global target setting to reduce the burden of diabetes mellitus by 2030. Lancet (London, England), 401(10384), 1302. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(23)00001-6
95. Zhang, J., Zhang, Z., Zhang, K., Ge, X., Sun, R., & Zhai, X. (2023). Early detection of type 2 diabetes risk: limitations of current diagnostic criteria. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 14, 1260623. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2023.1260623
96. Giri, S. (2024). AI-Driven Predictive Models for Early Detection of Diabetes: A Review Study. DOI: https://doi.org/10.47760/ijcsmc.2024.v13i09.004
97. Gupta, P., Sharma, S., Khandelwal, D., Aggarwal, S., & Chittawar, S. (2025). Preventing Type 2 Diabetes in Children through School-based Interventions: A Review. Preventive Medicine: Research & Reviews, 10-4103. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4103/PMRR.PMRR_114_25
98. Perng, W., Conway, R., Mayer-Davis, E., & Dabelea, D. (2023). Youth-onset type 2 diabetes: the epidemiology of an awakening epidemic. Diabetes care, 46(3), 490-499. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2337/dci22-0046
99. Kumah, E. (2025). Self-Management Education: A Patient-Focused Quality Improvement Strategy in Managing Diabetes. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
100. Kreider, K. E., & Finch, R. A. (2025). Psychosocial Care in Diabetes. Care and Management of Type 2 Diabetes in Adults: A Handbook for Nurse Practitioners and Advanced Practice Providers, 75. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1891/9780826174567.0004
101. Saenz, C., Salinas, M., Rothman, R. L., & White, R. O. (2025). Personalized Lifestyle Modifications for Improved Metabolic Health: The Role of Cultural Sensitivity and Health Communication in Type 2 Diabetes Management. Journal of the American Nutrition Association, 44(3), 198-211. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/27697061.2024.2413368
102. Adwubi, E. (2025). Improving diabetes treatment in Ghana: modelling the health and economic benefits of public health interventions.
103. The high cost of newer therapies such as GLP-1 receptor agonists and SGLT2 inhibitors further exacerbates inequality, leaving the most vulnerable populations behind. Access challenges extend beyond medications.
104. Abdalla, M., Saad, M., Abazia, D., Advani, A., Alhammad, A. M., Bernknopf, A., ... & Thornby, K. A. (2025). Responsible Use of Artificial Intelligence in Health Care: Evidence, Challenges, and Best Practices: An Opinion of the Drug Information Practice and Research Network of the American College of Clinical Pharmacy. Journal of the American College of Clinical Pharmacy. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jac5.70131
105. Corrao, S., & Federici, M. (2025). Unmasking heterogeneity in type 2 diabetes: the clinical relevance of phenotyping in the era of precision medicine. Acta Diabetologica, 1-6. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00592-025-02556-6
106. Malas, K., Kazmi, S., Kang, Y. M., & McGuire, D. K. (2025). The contemporary landscape of cardiovascular optimization in type 2 diabetes: overcoming barriers to evidence-based use of newer antihyperglycemic agents. Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy, 1-12. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14656566.2025.2504702
107. Barragan-Carrillo, R., Asirwa, F. C., Dienstmann, R., Pendhakar, D., & Ruiz-Garcia, E. (2025). Global oncology: tackling disparities and promoting innovations in low-and middle-income countries. American Society of Clinical Oncology Educational Book, 45(3), e473930. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1200/EDBK-25-473930
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
Categories
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Pan-African Journal of Health and Psychological Sciences
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
All articles published in the Pan-African Journal of Health and Psychological Sciences (PAJHPS) are open access and distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0).
Under this license:
-
Authors retain copyright and grant the journal the right of first publication.
-
The work may be shared, copied, redistributed, and adapted for any purpose, even commercially.
-
Appropriate credit must be given to the original author(s) and the journal, along with a link to the license.
-
Users must indicate if changes were made.
-
There are no restrictions on reuse, provided the original work is properly cited.
Citation:
Authors and users must cite the original work in the following manner:
Author(s). (Year). Title of the article. Pan-African Journal of Health and Psychological Sciences, Volume(Issue), page range. https://doi.org/xx.xxxx/pajhps.vXnY.xxx
Copyright Statement:
Authors grant PAJHPS a non-exclusive license to publish the work and identify itself as the original publisher. Authors may enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version (e.g., post it to a repository or publish it in a book), with acknowledgment of its initial publication in this journal.
